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1, 3, 5, 7-tetrafluorocylcooctatetraene
agriculture. Image by Merbabu, GFDL
International Encyclopedia in the Social Sciences Dictionary of American History Pollution A to Z Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia with the Early Modern World Further reading
COPYRIGHT 2008 Thomson Gale.
In addition for the articles down the page, agriculture is discussed in many other articles. Domestication describes early history. Other aspects from the social structure of agriculturalists are discussed in Community, article on Community development; Manorial economy; rural society; and Village. Other aspects in the economy of agriculture are discussed under Communism, economic organization of; Credit; Famine; Food; Land; Land tenure; and Plantations.
There are a couple of ways of comparing the agricultural economy of 1 region achievable of another. It can be done with regard to crop distributions, or relative productivity, or even the effect around the rural landscape. The method used here are going to be a classification of agricultural practice in terms on the basic method or technology through which the farmer tackles the work of wresting crops on the earth.
Agricultural technology, mainly because it functions in a number of natural settings, not simply influences crop patterns, productivity, plus the landscape, and also affects population density, possibilities for trade and urbanization, and social structure.
If we look world wide and attempt to plot on the map the varying techniques in which different societies face the basic tasks of cultivation, we're bound for being struck from the existence, over wide areas containing many millions of an individual, of relatively unsophisticated techniques that seem for being survivals from an age how the more sophisticated societies have remaining far behind. There are today but few regions where these unsophisticated techniques are entirely unaffected by new ideas that contain spread with modern trade and commerce from those countries with early experience with agrarian revolution as defined below. The a higher level penetration by these new ideas varies widely, however, on your travels.
The agricultural systems in the world might be considered in terms on the following very broad categories, which could, as is going to be seen, be further subdivided occasionally using criteria apart from technology: 1 shifting cultivation; 2 simple sedentary cultivation with hand tools; 3 simple plow cultivation; 4 cultivation dominated from the effects from the agrarian revolution.
Shifting cultivation is usually a system to which temporary clearings are manufactured, usually yet not invariably in forest country, and cultivated for just a short period of years before being capable to revert to natural vegetation whilst the cultivator moves on into a succession of latest clearings. Typically, the time period for which anybody patch was in cultivation is usually a good deal shorter than the for which it is in a position to lie fallow under naturally regenerating vegetation.
Shifting cultivation as just defined would be the dominant agricultural system over wide areas in the earths surface. Most of these areas are in the tropics, notably within the Amazon Basin and adjacent aspects of South America, in many regions of intertropical Africa, in many remote jungle areas in India, in most in the less populated elements of both peninsular and insular southeast Asia, from the highland regions of Manchuria and Korea, plus aboriginal southwest China. This system of agriculture was formerly widespread in many areas of Europe, notably in northwest Spain and inside Black Forest and also other forested highland elements of central Europe; survivals might still be encountered. Possibly similar to 200 million people, occupying 14 million square miles, are engaged in shifting cultivation.
In addition for the impermanence of cultivation and on the system of bush-fallow stated earlier, many however, not all systems of shifting cultivation also involve other characteristic traits, notably clearing by slashing and burning the forest and other vegetation leaving stumps and infrequently bigger trees, and cultivation by hoe, dibble, or digging stick yet not by plow.
Perhaps because in western and central Europe shifting cultivation has receded within the face of more complex techniques of cultivation, there is a tendency to find it as a primitive way of land use that ought being replaced or perhaps forbidden. Foresters usually are particularly hostile into it, due to the undeniably destructive influence on vegetationshifting cultivators usually and not always prefer high forest to low jungle or scrub because under high forest conditions there tends to be considered a higher humus content and better fertility. It should be noted, however, that foresters in numerous tropical countries have exploited a head unit first created in Burma, the so-called taungya system, this agreement shifting cultivators are permitted to cultivate clearings on condition any time they abandon them they replant the forest inside form of teak. Hostility to shifting cultivation also springs from those who find it as a reason behind soil erosion, particularly when it can be practiced on steep slopesas it truly is, one example is, in Orissa India and within the hill tracts behind Chittagong Pakistan. There can be undoubtedly that erosion is accelerated in these circumstances. It is worth noting, however, that some shifting cultivators deliberately choose slopes as an alternative to flatter land because it really is the former that, under tropical conditions, generally have the less mature and as a consequence less leached and much more fertile soil. There can also be without doubt that shifting cultivation, notably in areas of Africa and Indonesia, has degraded the natural vegetation from forest to grassland.
In a broader sense, too, shifting cultivation may be seen as an adaptation to tropical soil conditions this agreement continuous cultivation might be highly dangerous inside the absence of advanced methods for conserving soil and tweaking soil fertility; under such circumstances it can be preferable to cultivate for the year or two also to abandon the plot before an excessive amount of damage is done for the soil although in point of fact it can be often the impracticality of controlling weeds with hand tools alone, in lieu of diminished fertility, that drives the cultivator off his plot. It is significant, normally made available, that European settlers in Brazil have, in most areas, taken with a form of shifting cultivation.
It is impossible inside the present state of our own knowledge to state of all systems of shifting cultivation whether or not are in equilibrium using environment or destructive of computer; in numerous cases more studies needed. A clearer definition with the problem is required because in the wide array of practices, all subsumed inside term shifting cultivation. Conklin 1961, as an example, demonstrates that swiddens clearings produced by shifting cultivators may be worked hoes, might or might not be fenced, could possibly be worked from temporary huts or permanent villages, and vary enormously in these features as strategies to clearing and amount of fallow. In this last connection it can be important to emphasize that in most regions, notably in west Africa and regions of India and Ceylon, the stress of population plus the demands of income cropping are such that the of regeneration between successive periods of cultivation grows shorter and shorter, sometimes until it even disappears altogether. In the absence of techniques of manuring and soil conservation it seems sensible usually the degradation from the soil. Conklin proceeds to point out the merits of any combined ethnographical and ecological approach on the study of shifting cultivation along with the rarity which this approach has hitherto been followed.
G. J. A. Terra 1958, writing on southeast Asia with special hitting the ground with Indonesia, demonstrates numerous practice among shifting cultivators who, however, have tended to be sedentary, specifically in Java. Thus in Bangka, Billiton, and Minahassa, and also Halmahera and several other islands from the Moluccas, shifting cultivators haven't any cattle and depend almost entirely on plots planted while using dibble; but a head unit of even wider distribution, in many regions of Sumatra, in southern Celebes, and inside the Lesser Sundas involves shifting cultivation by those who also own cattle and among whom cattle ownership, like eastern and southern Africa, confers status.
R. F. Watters 1960 also records the range of practice covered from the term shifting cultivation and distinguishes several major types. He discloses an important point that may be often overlooked: shifting cultivation is in many areas practiced by people that are perfectly well aware of strategies to sedentary cultivation, but use shifting cultivation for just a particular group of land. For example, shifting cultivation is practiced inside unirrigable highlands within the dry zone of Ceylon, a country where irrigated rice and coconuts are grown respectively in permanent fields on irrigable land additionally, on land using a permanently high water table. In northern Burma, again, culturally identical peoples practice, on the other hand, terraced rice cultivation of hill slopes in aspects of high population density, and, on the other side, shifting cultivation of similar slopes where population density is low Leach 1959.
There is, the truth is, a detailed connection between shifting cultivation and low population density: beyond a crucial density which varies with local conditions the time of regeneration allowed for the natural vegetation becomes way too short, and deterioration will set in unless the cultivators adopt some from the techniques in which sedentary cultivators are able to cultivate the identical field year in and year out. This is one way where the transition from shifting to sedentary cultivation might be effected; another will be the planting of economic crops, especially permanent tree crops, in abandoned clearings by shifting cultivators the rubber grown in Sumatra is usually a good example.
It isn't going to follow, however, that simple sedentary cultivation that may be, for present purposes, sedentary cultivation without recourse on the plow represents the fixation of shifting cultivation. In southeast Asia, one example is, it could be how the most ancient surviving type of cultivation will be the use of permanent gardens to cultivate bananas, various tubers like Dioscorea yams and taro Colocasia esculenta, and tree crops like the coconut and, less often, the sago palm. Carl O. Sauer 1952 believes that was the earliest coming from all forms of cultivation. It survives as being the sole type of land easy use in remote Indonesian islands just like the Mentawai Islands; then one very enjoy it provides principle system in Polynesia, where it survives, in Fiji within the form of specially prepared and irrigated taro beds. In all these cases, except where modern influences have prevailed, cultivation is as simple as digging stick or, less commonly, by hoe. Fertility in tuber gardens is maintained using a rest period. Tree crops can, naturally, be permanent, for trees bring nutriment up from lower horizons with the soil and protect our planet from erosion; they may be therefore not too difficult to maintain in equilibrium together with the environmentprovided the climate is suitablethough yields will often be very low indeed within the absence of bug control and fertilizers.
The mixed garden containing both tree crops and many vegetables which is so manifestation of much on the rice-growing elements of southeast Asia along with the Indian subcontinent can be regarded like a special development on the system just described.
In many areas of Africa south in the Sahara womens gardens have to be found immediately throughout the village. In them vegetables, bananas, as well as other crops are grown yourself tillage over a more or less permanent basis. The gardens are kept fertile by way of manure from goats, chickens, and also the villagers themselves, along with household refuse and ashes.
The agricultural systems in the Inca in pre-Columbian America in addition to their latter-day successors represent an excellent example of sedentary but plowless agriculture partially dependent on irrigation along with the terracing of steep slopes.
It have to be recognized, however, which it would be very difficult to draw a map from the world as well as plot onto it all examples with the land-use technique currently under discussion and, for example, to distinguish all existing cases from the fixation of cultivation in areas traditionally specialized in shifting cultivation. Much more work with this problem is necessary.
It will probably be appreciated that two on the basic points that confront the sedentary cultivator would be the maintenance of soil fertility plus the control of weeds. If fertility are not maintained fields should be periodically abandoned, along with the cultivation is not truly sedentary; if weeds proliferate too extensively as within the chena, the patch from the Ceylonese shifting cultivator, precisely the same applies. The by using even the simple wooden plow goes quite a distance toward the remedy of both problems. The ability in the plowman to hide at least some of his weeds, thereby to kill them, also adds on the humus inside the soil. The deeper and even more systematic cultivation made possible through the plow is likely to bring to your surface plant-nutrients disassembled by percolating rainfall also to improve soil structure; the inclusion of draft animals to get the plow at the very least gives the chance of stall-feeding so because of this systematic manuringa possibility that may be unfortunately not always realized in reality.
Over an enormous area stretching through the Mediterranean and also the Balkans towards the Japanese archipelago, and from central Asia to Ceylon, agricultural technology remains dominated using a simple, traditional plow culture, only marginally affected from the agrarian revolution and others other developments which have transformed the agriculture for these regions as western Europe, North America, and Australia. The vast populations of India, China, and also the Middle East depend because of their food supply on traditional types of sedentary tillage while using types of wooden plow transferred from remote generations.
Within an excellent cultural region there could be recognized numerous subcultures, separated on grounds of technology and associated crop pattern.
In the Middle East, from Afghanistan and Iran to Egypt, you can recognize a belt of plow cultures, maybe the most ancient of the, where animaldrawn plows appeared much before 3000 It is characterized, among other things, by way of a reliance on irrigation of the wide selection of types, on the ancient and modern systems dependent upon the Nile on the ingenious tunnels karez of Iran and also the multitudinous devices used from the oasis dweller. In this area, too, the terracing of hill slopes was in many places a very developed traditional technique.
The lands across the Mediterranean, using their highly distinctive climate and cultural history, also form a subregion in the belt of plow cultures. The most characteristic and traditional technology hinges with a twofold system of land use: the fields, traditionally growing the staple cereal crops, wheat and barley, plus some places irrigated; along with the hillside plantations of vines and olives, figs, as well as other tree crops. Everywhere especially within the south of France, in Italy, plus in Israel fliers and business cards are, however, being rapidly replaced by more specialized cultivation within the impact of commerce and on the agrarian revolution.
In the Balkan peninsula plus in certain geographical pockets in western, central, and northern Europe one reaches what may, for convenience and brevity, be regarded since the cool temperate variant of traditional plow culturethe cultivation, using oxen or horses as draft animals, of wheat and barley in favorable places, as well as oats and rye in wetter and cooler places, having a fair selection of ancillary crops. Here are European peasant societies still relatively unaffected because of the agrarian revolution: even so the word relatively is utilized advisedly, for nearly everywhere today, beneath the impact of contemporary communications or commerce, properly institutional adjustments to communist countries, the previous order is vanishing plus the transition with a more modern agricultural technology and economy has effected, here slowly, there faster. Some with the largest agglomerations of population depend upon an association from the plow and also other simple animal-drawn tools harrows, leveling boards, plus the like with irrigated or, just the same, flooded-field rice cultivation. This subculture covers most of Ceylon, southern India, Bengal, and Assam, the deltas of mainland southeast Asia, Java, Sumatra, the Philippines, and southern China and Japan. The total area under wet rice as distinct from dry rice grown by shifting or rudimentary sedentary cultivation exceeds 200 million acres, and rice forms the staple food of above half the worlds people. Rice can be a remarkable crop in different ways too. Because it exists in a great number of varieties it might be grown under widely varying conditions, from brackish and even saline soils to deeply flooded deltas like that relating to Thailand and South Vietnam. In a multitude of locations, given enough water, it might supply two crops on the identical land on a yearly basis. Anda crucial point it could give worthwhile yields on a similar land every year for generations without manuring, although, needless to say, yields could possibly be greatly increased because of the judicious by using manure; dry crops under similar conditions tend, from the tropics at the least, to provide declining yields which will well stabilize with an uneconomic level. The reasons with this valuable property of wet rice are usually to be sought in these factors because the nutrients and clay minerals introduced by irrigation water along with the lower temperatures preserved by flooding, which, with anaerobic conditions for much in the year, lower the pace of oxidation and decrease of nutrients of vegetable matter. Just as irrigated wheat cultivation historically became identified together with the rise of the many sociocultural institutions of Western civilization, so with rice cultivation goes a complete way of life, a full type of civilization, together with all the possibility of supporting dense populations for years and years, in any other case for millennia.
Among the populations held by plow cultivation of rice you'll find, needlessly to say, many variations in agricultural economy and technology. Some rice cultivators have highly developed techniques of terracing hillsides and also controlling water within the terraces, inside hills of Ceylon, in Java, and within the interior of Luzon; others tackle land that is certainly almost flat, in southern Thailand and within the Malay Peninsula. Again, some rice cultivators, just as China, employ almost incredible ingenuity in since every scrap of waste organic matter finds its way back for the soilindeed, their technology is frequently intensive gardening as an alternative to plow culturewhereas others, in regions that until recently felt but little pressure of population, use no manure in any way except beneath the modern pressure exerted by the cash economy through government agencies, in lowland Ceylon.
North and west in the great rice-growing aspects of India and China, inside dry plateaus with the Deccan as well as the great Indo-Gangetic plains, plus the loesslands and delta on the mighty but dangerous Hwang Ho, is also large populations of farmers, densely settled in fertile plains, less densely yet still thickly by American standards in rockier plateaus with thinner soils. These form two more subcultures, mainly because it were, on the great Old World belt of plow cultures, focused on millets, wheat, oilseeds, sugar cane, and cotton in lieu of to rice and it is ancillaries. The north Indian peasant is likely to have less intensive techniques minimizing yields than his north Chinese counterpart, although in India the relationship is changing albeit rather patchily and China, needless to say, feels the impact from the communist agrarian measures.
In Europe, agricultural developments with the last more than 200 years have wrought such adjustments to technology and economy which they demand separate, though necessarily summary, treatment. The source with the changes concerned lies, certainly, within the agrarian revolution inside the widest feeling of that term, including not simply technical changes but modifications to conditions of land holding. A whole complex of developments is thus involved, like the replacement of fallowing with constant tillage; the introduction of latest crops and of brand new breeds of animals; the results of evolving communications within the specialization of agricultural production; structural change within the agrarian system evolutionary within the West, revolutionary in Russia; and, now, the impact of contemporary science and engineering as observed in mechanization, pest and disease control, artificial fertilizers, along with the evolution of strains of crop worthy of particular conditions and proof against specific diseases. One has and then compare a sophisticated farm in, say, East Anglia England or perhaps the United States using a peasant holding in India or Egypt to determine the contrast. Yet a lot more peasant holdings in India plus in Egypt 're feeling some from the effects with the revolution under consideration. In both countries, for example, the peasant could have a very small holding and also be cultivating it using a wooden plow and draft animals who have changed little considering that the time of Ashoka or in the pharaohs; but also in both countries this individual well be growing, for any distant market, an American selection of cotton put together by scientific genetic research.
It could well be difficult to manage a description of most the forms of agricultural technology or of cropping patterns that contain emerged and therefore are constantly evolving from your revolutionary changes just mentioned, whether or not the requisite data were everywhere available. One or two salient characteristics may, however, be highlighted and another or two technological subtypes enumerated. One on the outstanding characteristics of recent agriculturewhether in land of comparatively new settlement for example North America, Argentina, or Australia, or perhaps older agricultural areas including western Europeis the high and mounting a higher level mechanization, characterized first by new plows, harvesters, along with other implements drawn by horses, after which by tractordrawn implements and self-propelled machines much like the combine harvester and the rotary tiller. Originally an answer mainly towards the need for constant tillage, weed control, and also other desiderata from the earlier agrarian reformers, the movement toward mechanization is vastly stimulated through the existence in lands of brand new settlement of enormous aspects of virgin soil combined that has a great dearth of training. The relationship between mechanization plus the relative abundance of land in addition to labor seems to get forgotten by individuals who advocate wholesale mechanization in underdeveloped and over-populated countries. Wholesale mechanization of Indian agriculture would, as an example, merely swell to uncontrollable numbers the already large army of rural unemployed or grossly underemployed, at a similar time reducing yields per acre where at this time, as in regions of Madras State, the intensive using hand methods gives phenomenal yields, in such a case of rice. The answer would appear for being selective mechanization of processes for instance plowing hard-caked soil, impossible under present methods, or of processes handicapped, inspite of the over-all surplus of training, by seasonal shortagefor example, weeding the standing paddy crop. In western Europe and elsewhere, mechanization continues to be associated having a drift of labor on the land into other occupations and infrequently into towns, and that has a decline inside proportion in the national labor pool engaged in cultivation to some figure that sounds unbelievable to, say, Indian ears.
Another outstanding sign of modern agricultural technology will be the breeding of recent varieties of crops. These new varieties have sometimes revolutionized agricultural geography; for instance, it seems like probable that none with the lands within the United States west on the Mississippi can be growing wheat today if your only available varieties were those brought because of the Pilgrim Fathers. The poleward and desertward march of agriculture can be a feature of our own times, however it carries by using it its own dangersnotably of soil erosion from the case on the extension of cultivation toward and into arid regions.
An outstanding sign of modern agriculture is its high penetration of specialization. Most African farmers would realize its very hard to comprehend the agricultural types of, say, a Wiltshire England dairy farmer, who produces merely liquid milk, which he consumes just a few pints daily, and who must buy the rest he needs, including even milk like butter and cheese. It is, needless to say, an upswing of urban and industrial markets, the spread of recent communications, as well as the development of your exchange economy who have, with changes in strategies to production, caused the realm of specialized agricultural production through which we live. Wheat farming inside the Canadian prairies, cocoa farming in Ghana, citrus planting in Israel, truck farming in Florida, and cotton production in Russian central Asia are several examples outside of thousands that you will find cited. The modern farmer chooses his crop not by making use of a traditional technology as well as a limited array of crop choices to local natural conditions but by watching this market often distorted, or just the same affected, by state action. But the farmer still flouts natural conditions at his peril, as those inside dust bowls in the 1930s found for their cost. Monoculture especially carries grave perilsnot only of declining fertility, but of diseases that spread like wildfire once they find ready victims in the same species, and even variety, for mile after mile across country.
One on the most familiar degrees of monocultural techniques will be the tropical plantationof tea in Ceylon, of rubber around the Malay Peninsula, of sisal in Tanganyika, and so forth. Originally these large units of production, opened up by using imported capital, often operated by imported labor, and for distant markets, stood in stark contrast to minuscule local peasant holdings: hence partly the theory in the dual economy, two contrasting economies side by side inside the same area. But in most countries todaynotably in Ceylonlocal capital and enterprise is active inside the plantations, and small holders and peasants are planting the crops once almost entirely confined to your large alien holdings. In other countries, one example is Indonesia, the plantation is seen as alien, colonialist intrusion, and is within the way out.
It is not denied that, using the world picture to be a whole, the shifting cultivator, the plowless sedentary cultivator, along with the traditional plow cultivator are retreating prior to a advance of contemporary commercial agriculture; to become more precise, elements with the modern agricultural technology in addition to modern agricultural organization are penetrating the formerly almost static arena of traditional agriculture. It might be in the form of an new crop for instance, the spectacular spread of manioc Manihot utilissima in the New World tropics to almost all parts with the Old World tropics; or use of artificial fertilizer; or a different system of green manuring. It can be the addition of an steel tip and mold board into a traditional wooden plow, and the development of truck farming, or heavy emphasis on the commercial crop like cocoa in Ghana or rubber in Malaya.
But this is not to convey that all the features with the more ancient agricultural economies are gonna disappear, still less which they ought to disappear. There is great danger from the wholesale transplantation associated with an agricultural technology in one environment to anotherwitness the spectacular failure from the scheme for mechanized creation of groundnuts in Tanganyika. And the dangers are not merely physical dangers, dangers to soil and plant cover. There are also grave social dangers. The link between wholesale and indiscriminate mechanization by using an overpopulated society have been completely discussed. It is always useful, and sometimes essential, to start in the assumption which a long-standing system of agricultural technology represents an adaptation to local physical and social conditions, albeit at the lower technical level and sometimes regarding past social conditions, especially in which the population/land ratio can be involved.
There is quite a bit research being done everywhere around the relationships involved. Only when there is undoubtedly an understanding with the existing system can changes safely be introduced or adapted.
Conklin, Harold C. 1961 The Study of Shifting Cultivation. Current Anthropology 2:2761.
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